Self-regulation is an individual’s influence, orientation, and control over his/her own behaviors. The primary aim of this study was to develop and validate a self-report scale on self-regulation that encompasses both cognitive and motivational factors. The validity and reliability studies of the scale were examined on responses of 872 university students. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the hypothesized model of self-regulated skills in learning. The scale has 67 items and the factor loadings range from 0.47 to 0.91. The Cronbach’s Alpha was computed 0.91 for the whole scale. Discussions and suggestions parallel to findings are given in the end.
Zimmerman describes academically successful students as those who approach learning tasks confidently, diligently and are equipped with necessary learning skills. They are also aware of what knowledge or skills they have or not. They are the ones who display a proactive approach towards obtaining information and take giant steps towards mastery of knowledge. Additionally, they find a way to deal with obstacles to learning like bad study conditions, teachers that are confusing, or books that are difficult to understand. Eventually, they perceive learning as a systematic and controllable process and take more responsibility in achieving their objectives (1990: 4–5).
Those students, who are “metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviorally active participants in their own learning process” (Zimmerman 2001: 5; Zimmerman and Schunk 2011), plan the acquisition process, define their objectives, organize information, and continuously monitor and evaluate themselves. With a high level of self-efficacy and strong intrinsic interests towards learning tasks, they choose, design and create learning environments to maximize their own learning (Zimmerman 1990: 4–5; Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons 1988: 284). These behaviors, which are the main focus of this study, are widely known as self-regulated learning skills (SRL).
Self-regulation is one of the key concepts in Bandura’s Social Learning Theory and is described by Senemoğlu as “an individual’s influence, orientation, and control over his/her own behaviors” (2005: 231). Additionally, Zimmerman (2000: 14) formulates self-regulation as “self-generated thoughts, feelings, and actions that are planned and cyclically adapted to the attainment of personal goals”.
From the social cognitive perspective, self-regulation is an interaction of personal, behavioral and environmental processes (Bandura 1986). Zimmerman states that feedback derived from prior performance has an influence over subsequent efforts. These adjustments are inevitable because personal, environmental, and behavioral processes constantly change during the course of learning (Zimmerman 2000: 13–15). As he also depicts; while behavioral self-regulation involves self-observation and strategic adjustment of performance processes like an individual’s learning method, the environmental self-regulation entails the observation and adjustment of environmental conditions or outcomes. Finally, covert self-regulation embraces cognitive and affective states like imagery for remembering or relaxing.
There is a need to identify those self-regulated learning strategies or skills that would help us define individuals as self-regulated learners. In various studies, it is stressed that learners need to believe in the usefulness of such strategies. McCombs (2001) states that SRL is a common function of cognitive and metacognitive strategies together with motivation control and emotion control. In addition to cognitive and metacognitive strategies, there are several other researchers who have highlighted the influence of learners’ beliefs, expectations and their attributions to success and failure on learning (Dweck 1986). Pintrich and De Groot (1990) draw attention to the inadequacy of cognitive and metacognitive strategies without the motivational factors involved in learning. Zimmerman (1990: 11) emphasizes that “self-regulation requires more than cognitive skills; it requires a will or a motivational component as well”. Senemoğlu (2005) highlights the fact that some students may fail even though they make use of appropriate cognitive skills and she points to possible motivational or emotional factors involved. Zimmerman (1990: 6) postulates that self-regulated learning could not be fully understood if learning skills and motivation are treated as independent processes, not interdependent ones. Boekaerts and Cascallar (2006) describe emotion regulation as an important aspect of self-regulation. In her six-component model of SRL, Boekaerts (1996: 102–103) conceptualizes two parallel but strongly interrelated regulatory systems, namely cognitive self-regulation and motivational self-regulation.
In the light of such previous studies and explanations, the framework of a scale that includes possible components of self-regulation would/should be formed under two major components/sections: self-regulated learning strategies and motivational dimensions. The components involved in these two sections and their functions are explained in the following paragraphs.
Among various other studies on regulation of learning (Hadwin and Oshige 2011; Sameroff 2010), the authors of the present study decided to form the dimensions of SRL Skills/Strategies by taking basis the models proposed by two groups of researchers, who have formed up their dimensions according to principles of social cognitive theory. In the first self-regulated learning skills model, Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons propose 14 dimensions (Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons 1986: 618; Zimmerman 1989: 337). The second model belongs to Pintrich and De Groot with three broad dimensions. The dimensions in both models are presented in Table 1.
Table 3 summarizes goodness-of-fit indices for Model 1 and Model 2. Although there are no well-established guidelines for what minimal conditions constitute an adequate fit, some rules of thumb exist. Further analyses of the indices suggested that they were at least within the acceptable criteria range, as recommended by Schermelleh-Engel et al. (2003) and Hair et al. (2010). These findings suggested that the model (Model 2) fit the sample data, or in other words, matched the observed data.
Table 3 Comparison of Model 1 and Model 2 confirmatory factor analysis goodness-of-fit indicesExploratory factor analysis was conducted again with the 17-dimension, 67-item Model 2. The factor loadings ranged from 0.47 to 0.91 (refer to Table 4 for the factor loadings and variance each dimension explains).
Table 4 Factor loadings and total variance explained by each dimension in Model 2Additionally, the analysis of the correlations between the sections and main dimensions in the scale (Table 5) showed that they correlated well with each other in expected directions.
Table 5 Correlation coefficients between section and main dimension scores in the Scale. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
The reliability for this scale, as calculated via Cronbach’s alpha, was confirmed at 0.91 (Before Study = 0.78, During Study = 0.77, After Study = 0.82, and Motivation = 0.81 were found separately). As part of item analysis, the item-total test correlations were calculated and by using unrelated t test analysis the relationship between item means of students at top quartile (27 %) and bottom quartile (27 %) were examined. The results of these applications, which indicate the scale’s internal consistency and item discrimination (Büyüköztürk 2002: 171–172), are shown in Table 6.
Table 6 Item analysis results of the final scaleAfter the thorough process of scale development for the “Scale on Self-Regulation in Learning”, the results indicated that self-regulation was a multidimensional construct that differentiated individuals. The existence of the two sections in this scale, as theorized and constructed from the findings in literature, was supported by the exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses.
Using the entire sample, the confirmatory factor analysis on the 67-item version showed acceptable fit for the 17-dimension model (refer to Table 3 for the goodness-of-fit indices). The loadings ranged from 0.47 to 0.91 (refer to Table 4 for the factor loadings and variance each dimension explains). Furthermore, Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for the whole scale was computed at 0.91 (0.78, 0.77, 0.82, and 0.81 were alphas found for Before Study, During Study, After Study, and Motivation respectively), which indicated strong internal consistency of the scale.
As part of item analysis, the item-total test correlations were calculated and by using unrelated/uncorrelated t test analysis the relationship between item means of students at top quartile (27 %) and bottom quartile (27 %) was examined. The results of these again indicated that the scale has high internal consistency and the scale items discriminate well among students.
The Self-Regulatory Learning Inventory (SRLI) of Lindner et al. (1996) includes four subscales: executive processing, cognitive processing, motivation, and environmental control and utilization. The internal reliability of this 80-item scale ranges from 0.78 to 0.93. The Motivational Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) of Pintrich and De Groot (1990) includes 81 items on learner motivation, cognitive strategy use, metacognitive strategy use, and management effort and has reliability ranging from 0.74 to 0.89. The Self-Regulatory Learning Interview Schedule (SRLIS) of Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1986) identifies 14 classes of self-regulated behavior that can occur in six learning contexts. It asks learners to indicate how they participate in class, how they study and complete their assignments. The Self-Regulated Learning Skill Inventory (SRLSI) of Heo (1998) encompasses five categories with 29 items: motivation and self-efficacy, cognitive strategy, metacognitive strategy, environmental utilization, and epistemological beliefs and has the reliability of 0.76. In comparison with these highly acclaimed scales on SRL, the present scale with its focus both on students’ motivational orientations and various learning skills/strategies includes 17 dimensions with 67 items and has the reliability of 0.91. The internal reliability of the main dimensions of the scale (before study, during study, after study, and motivation) ranges from 0.78 to 0.82. In light of such a fact, the authors believe that the present scale could be used reliably to measure levels of student self-regulation at university level, and other age and/or grade levels in Turkey. It is expected that replication of the scale with more students from different levels will increase its reliability in time.
The results provided even more conclusive evidence for the fact that self-regulated learning rests both on learning skills/strategies and motivational factors. As depicted in the introduction part, self-regulation cannot be thought regardless of such motivational components like self-efficacy, task value, or goal orientations. One’s learning skills/strategies and his/her motivation are in constant interaction with each other. For example; frequent use of self-regulated skills/strategies brings success and eventually builds up self-efficacy, in return high self-efficacy leads to more resort to those learning skills/strategies that bring success. As also stated by many scholars (McCombs 2001; Pintrich and De Groot 1990; Zimmerman 1990), the findings of this study reiterates the fact that self-regulation or self-regulated learning should be comprised of not only learning skills/strategies, but also motivational factors as well.
It is also worth mentioning that this collection does not include all possible regulation of cognitive and motivation strategies, it is a cross-sectional representation of the ways which university students in Turkey use to manage their cognitive and motivational processes. Another concern with the scale presented here is the relative lack of empirical data specifically examining its validity with regard to particular individual differences like gender, age level, and socioeconomic status. Additional research examining the psychometric properties of this scale within diverse populations is needed to provide additional evidence regarding this aspect of validity.
The authors main intent was to develop a self-report scale that could be used to measure the self-regulatory learning levels of university students in Turkey. Turner (1995) points to the relative ease of designing, administering, and scoring self-report questionnaires and adds that they provide (a) information about learners’ memories and interpretations of their actions and (b) their explanations of cognitive and metacognitive processes researchers cannot observe (in Winne and Perry 2000: 542). Keeping such reviews in mind, the authors thought that such a self-report measure would be helpful to researchers and/or teachers dealing with large groups of students. However, as proposed by Boekaerts and Corno (2005), one instrument would not be sufficient enough to fully observe students’ self-regulation in progress. Supporting findings of instruments that measure self-regulation as an aptitude (like self-report questionnaires) with those that measure self-regulation as an event (like think alouds and observations) would definitely provide the researchers or teachers with better pictures of their students’ progress in self-regulation.
In this study, the development and preliminary validation of a new Turkish measure of self-regulation in learning for university students was described. After all, a parsimonious, 17-dimensional, 67-item scale, demonstrating reliability and validity, resulted from this development process. The resulting scale consisted of two sub-scales or sections: self-regulated learning skills and motivational factors. Self-regulated learning skills (or cognitive factors) were grouped under three main dimensions, namely before study (environmental structuring, planning, and arrangement of study time), during study (organizing and transforming, seeking appropriate information, seeking easily accessible information, seeking peer, teacher or adult assistance, self-monitoring, and rehearsing and memorizing), and after study (self-evaluation, self-consequences after success, and self-consequences after failure). The motivational factors included task value, self-efficacy, anxiety, attributions for failure, and goal orientations. The scale is in Turkish. The total number of items together with English translation of sample items for each dimension is given in the “Appendix”.
The authors believe that this self-report measure can be used to evaluate self-regulated learning skills of university students in Turkey and if validated could be used with other age groups as well. The different sections or sub-scales and main dimensions on SSRL can be used together or singly. The sections and main dimensions are designed to be modular and can be used to fit the needs of the researcher or instructor. The results of the scale can be used for feedback or profiling purposes. For example; students in a class could compare their scores they get from the whole scale, sections or dimensions of the scale to see in which areas they are good or they need improvement or assistance. Likewise, average scores could be used to set the profiles of students individually or in groups. The instrument is designed to be given in class and takes approximately 20–25 min to administer. The total set of items may be available for bona fide research purposes, if required from the corresponding author.
This is a self-report instrument. It is essential to support the results of the applications of this scale with other measures of self-regulation (observations or interviews) if deeper understanding of student progress with respect to self-regulatory processes is intended. Notwithstanding insufficiencies of such self-report questionnaires, this measure is easy to administer and score when used with large bodies of students.
The aim of this study was to develop a scale on self-regulation, so individual differences like gender, age level, and socioeconomic status and the possible influence of powerful learning environments were not taken into consideration. The authors’ intention is to handle these factors in their future research to provide more evidence for the validity of this scale.
Both authors of this manuscript equally contributed to the planning, impementation and reporting of this research. TE spent more time in drafting the manuscript, whereas NS’s contribution was more on the statistical calculations and interpretations. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
The authors would like to extend their deepest appreciation to Assoc.Dr. Irfan Yurdabakan, an expert on testing and assessment, for his valuable support he gave for the statistical procedures and analyses in this study.
The authors declare that there is no competing interests.
All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. All persons gave their informed consent prior to their inclusion in the study.